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Abstract:
Accurate and efficient forest inventory methods are crucial for monitoring forest ecosystems, assessing carbon stocks, and supporting sustainable forest management. Traditional field-based techniques, which rely on manual measurements such as diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height (TH), remain labour-intensive and time-consuming. In this study, we introduce and validate a fully open-source, low-cost terrestrial laser scanning system (LCA-TLS) built from commercially available components and based on the Livox Avia sensor. With a total cost of €2050, the system responds to recent technological developments that have significantly reduced hardware expenses while retaining high data quality. This trend has created new opportunities for broadening access to high-resolution 3D data in ecological research. The performance of the LCA-TLS was assessed under controlled and field conditions and benchmarked against three reference devices: the RIEGL VZ-1000 terrestrial laser scanner, the Stonex X120GO handheld mobile laser scanner, and the iPhone 15 Pro Max structured-light device. The LCA-TLS achieved high accuracy for estimating DBH (RMSE: 1.50 cm) and TH (RMSE: 0.99 m), outperforming the iPhone and yielding results statistically comparable to the Stonex X120GO (DBH RMSE: 1.32 cm; p > 0.05), despite the latter being roughly ten times more expensive. While the RIEGL system produced the most accurate measurements, its cost exceeded that of the LCA-TLS by a factor of about 30. The hardware design, control software, and processing workflow of the LCA-TLS are fully open-source, allowing users worldwide to build, modify, and apply the system with minimal resources. The proposed solution thus represents a practical, cost-effective, and accessible alternative for 3D forest inventory and LiDAR-based ecosystem monitoring.

Keywords:
functional prototype, low cost, TLS, HMLS, iPhone, forest